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FIRST  LESSONS 


IN 


PERSPECTIVE, 


SKETCHING  FROM  NATURE; 

DESIGNED  FOR  SCHOOLS. 


A TEACHER. 


SAXTON  & MILES. 


1846. 


<1 

i 

* I 


Entered  accordin;^  to  the  Act  of  Congress  in  the  year  1846,  by  B.  H-  Coe,  in  the  Clerk’s 
Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  Southern  Distiict  of  New  York. 


.1.  A.  Fkaetas,  Pkintf.r  f 
No.  7 Spnice-st.  S 


WINKLER  AUG  lo  1943 


PERSPECTIVE. 


1 


Perspective  is  the  art  of  drawingthe  ouilinesor  pictures  of 
objects,  just  as  they  would  appear  on  a pane  of  glavss  held 
upright,  between  the  objects  and  the  eye  of  the  spectator. 

The  Perspective  Plane  is  the  surface  of  the  paper, 
canvass,  or  other  material  on  which  the  picture  is  drawn. 

Difference  between  a Map  and  a Perspective  Drawing. 

Hold  a pane  of  glass  horizontally  over  a small  square  ta- 
ble, or  box ; look  down  through  it  with  one  eye,  or  almost 
close  both,  and  you  will  see  the  top  of  it  in  its  tfue  shape, 


or  with  some  water  color,  in  a small  brush,  you  can  draw  it 
on  the  glass  : this  would  be  a Map  or  Plan.  Now  stand 
directly  in  front  of  the  table,  but  at  a little  distance  from 
it,  hold  your  perspective  plane  (pane  ol  glass)  upright  be- 
fore you,  and  you  will  see  it  in  this  shape : 


Now  move  a little  so  that  the  right  edge  of  the  table  will 
go  directly  from  you,  still  keep  the  perspective  plane  paral- 
lel with  the  front,  and  it  will  appear  in  this  form : 


Now  turn  so  far  round  that  neither  side  of  the  table  shall 


4 


FIRST  LESSONS  IN  PERSPECTIVE, 


be  parallel  with  the  perspective  plane,  and  it  will  have  this 
appearance. 


The  Size  of  a Drawing  or  Picture  depends  on  the  dis- 
tance of  the  perspective  plane  from  the  eye. 

Mold  the  perspective  plane  close  to  the  eye,  and  a chair 
or  other  object  before  you  will  appear  on  it  only  an  inch  or 
two  in  height ; but  hold  the  plane  a little  from  you  and  it 
will  not  be  large  enough  to  include  the  whole  object.  So 
if  you  draw  an  extended  view  on  a small  surface,  you  must 
imagine  the  perspective  plane  to  be  near  the  eye.  In  paint- 
ing a likeness,  if  the  perspective  plane  is  supposed  to  be 
near  the  Artist  the  picture  is  drawn  small  and  is  called  a 
wAyiiature^  but  if  the  perspective  plane  is  supposed  to  be 
close  to  the  sitter  the  picture  is  then  drawn  the  size  of  life 
and  is  called  a portrait. 

Objects  appear  large  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the 
ang  le  they  form  in  the  eye. 

A person  of  the  same  height  appears  at  the  distance  of 
one  rod  from  the  eye,  twice  as  tall  as  another  at  the  distance 
of  two  rods,  or  three  times  as  tall  as  another  at  the  distance 
of  three  rods,  &c. 

Figure  5, 


represents  four  columns  of  the  same  height,  and  of  equal 
distance  from  the  eye,  and  from  each  other.  In  the  same 
angle  you  see  twice  as  much  of  the  second,  three  times  as 
much  of  the  third,  and  four  times  as  much  of  the  fourth  as 
you  do  of  the  first. 

The  two  dotted  lines  coming  to  the  eye  from  the  top  and 
bottom  of  the  farther  column  represent  rays  of  light  and 
are  called  visual  rays. 


AND  SKETCHING  THOM  NATURE. 


6 


A horizontal  ray  of  light  extending  directly  from  the 
eye  to  the  point  of  sight,  or  nearest  point  on  the  perspec- 
tive plane,  is  called  the  principal  visual  ray. 

Perpendicular  and  Horizontal  Lines, 

Hold  your  perspective  plane  (pane  of  glass)  upright  be- 
fore your  eye,  examine  all  the  lines  in  the  room,  and  in 
different  directions,  and  you  will  discover  : — 

I.  That  perpendicular  lines  never  vary,  but  always  ap- 
pear perpendicular  on  the  perspective  plane  or  picture. 

II.  Horizontal  lines  when  parallel  with  the  perspective 
plane  always  appear  horizontal. 

III.  Horizontal  lines  when  just  the  height  of  your  eye 
always  appear  level  on  the  picture. 

IV.  Horizontal  lines  which  are  higher  than  your  eye, 
and  are  not  parallel  with  the  perspective  plane,  descend  as 
they  go  from  you. 

V.  Horizontal  lines  which  are  below  the  eye,  and  are 
oblique  with  the  perspective  plane,  always  appear  to  rise  as 
they  retire  from  you. 

Hold  your  perspective  plane  parallel  with  a door  and  it 
will  be  seen  in  its  true  shape,  the  perpendicular  lines  will  ap- 
pear so  on  the  picture,  and  all  the  horizontal  lines  will  ap- 
pear horizontal.  Now  let  the  door  be  half  opened  : the  per- 
pendicular lines  are  still  perpendicular,  but  the  front  one 
has  increased  its  length ; the  horizontal  lines  have  be- 
come much  shorter,  and  none  of  them  appear  level  on  your 
picture  unless  one  happens  to  be  just  the  height  of  your 
eye. 

Horizontal  Line  and  point  of  Sight. 

A level  line  drawn  on  the  perspective  plane  and  held 
before  you  at  just  the  height  of  your  eye  is  called  the  hori- 
zontal line^  and  a dot  marked  on  this  line  directly  oppo- 
site the  eye  is  called  the  point  of  sight. 

Point  of  sight  the  principal  vanishing  point. 

If  you  stand  in  the  middle  of  a long  level  street,  or  on 
the  track  of  a rail  road,  or  at  one  end  of  a room,  or  a long 
covered  bridge  you  will  observe  all  the  lines  seem  to  con- 
verge as  they  retire,  and  would  if  continued,  appear  to  meet 
in  a point  at  just  the  height  of  your  eye.  Or  if  the  per- 
spective plane  were  held  before  your  eye,  they  would  all 
vanish  in  the  point  of  sight. 


6 


FIRST  LESSONS  IN  PERSPECTIVE 


Fasten  a thread  to  one  end  of  the  room  at  just  the  height 
of  your  eye,  stand  at  the  opposite  end  of  the  room  and  di- 
rectly in  front  of  the  point  to  which  the  thread  is  attached. 
Let  one  take  the  other  end  of  the  thread  and  place  it  on 
any  level  line  in  the  room,  as  the  edge  of  a table,  mantle 
corner  of  the  ceiling,  or  floor,  or  any  line  in  the  room  which 
goes  in  the  same  direction  you  are  looking  (ie.)  if  you  look 
exactly  north  let  him  apply  it  to  any  level  line  in  the 
room  going  north,  and  you  will  see  the  line  appear  to  rise 
or  descend  just  as  the  thread  does.  Now  it  makes  no  dif- 
ference where  the  thread  is  applied  to  these  lines,  nor 
is  it  material  whether  it  be  attached  to  the  point  on  the  op- 
posite wall,  or  to  a point  exactly  the  height  of  the  eye  and 
a mile  before  it ; for  in  either  case  it  would  vanish  in  the 
point  of  sight,  and  would  appear  precisely  of  the  same 
length  on  the  picture. 

Parallel  Perspective, 

When  you  stand  directly  before  a house,  you  see  only 
the  front  and  would  draw  it  in  its  true  proportionSj  this 
would  be  a plan  or  elevation.  Now  if  you  stand  a few 
feet  to  the  right  or  left  in  addition  to  the  front  you  have 
a view  of  one  side,  but  the  drawing  of  the  front  will  be  the 
same  as  before  if  you  still  keep  the  perspective  plane  paral- 
lel with  it,  and  as  the  level  lines  on  the  side  of  the  house, 
are  at  right  angles  with  the  perspective  plane,  or  in  other 
words,  as  they  go  in  the  same  direction  you  are  looking, 
they  must  vanish  in  the  point  of  sight. 

Figure  6, 

S 

/\ 

/ \ 

/ 


\ 


represents  a box  seen  directly  in  front  the  lines  of  the  top 
converge,  and  meet  in  the  point  of  sight  on  the  horizon*- 
tal  line.  Neither  end  is  seen. 


AND  SKETCHING  FROM  NATURE. 


7 


Figure  7. 


The  same  box  viewed  on  the  right  hand,  the  front  be- 
ing still  parallel  with  the  perspective  plane  is  drawn  just  as 
before.  All  the  other  level  lines  are  at  right  angles  with 
the  picture  or  are  parallel  with  the  principal  visual  ray  and 
must  vanish  in  the  point  of  sight  S,  because,  the  eye  of  the 
spectator  is  supposed  to  be  exactly  before  that  point. 

To  obtain  the  width  of  the  Box- 
Hold  up  your  perspective  plane,  notice  carefully  how 
much  space  the  top  occupies,  compared  with  the  height 
already  drawn,  and  make  it  in  that  proportion  on  your  pic- 
ture. That  is,  if  the  height  of  the  box  occupies  one  inch 
on  the  perspective  plane,  and  the  width  of  the  top  but  half 
an  inch,  draw  it  half  as  wide  as  it  is  high.  The  end 
may  then  be  drawn  to  correspond  with  the  width  of  the  top. 

The  proportions  may  be  obtained  in  the  same  way  by 
marking  them  on  the  edge  of  your  picture,  or  a pencil  may 
be  held  up  for  the  same  purpose.  Figure  8. 


8 


FIRST  LESSONS  TN  PERSPECTIVE, 


A table  seen  on  the  right  hand  in  parallel  perspective,  the 
bottoms  of  the  legs  vanish  in  the  same  point  as  the  top,  be- 
cause they  are  parallel  with  it. 

If  your  horizontal  line  be  made  too  high  or  low  the 
drawing  will  still  be  in  true  perspective  if  you  imagine  the 
eye  to  be  so  much  higher  or  lower  than  the  point  from 
which  you  view  it.  So  if  you  place  the  point  of  sight  far- 
ther to  the  right  or  left  than  you  actually  view  it,  the  per- 
spective will  still  be  correct  if  you  imagine  the  eye  to  be 
just  opposite  that  point. 


Figure  9. 


Two  houses  seen  in  parallel  perspective  on  the  oppo- 
site sides  of  a street.  The  ends  next  you  together  with 
the  windows  are  drawn  in  their  true  proportions  as  they 
are  parallel  with  your  picture,  the  sides  with  the  door  and 
windows  next  the  street  appear  quite  narrow  because  they 
are  viewed  obliquely.  The  bottom  of  the  cottage  is  level, 
because  it  stands  on  a bank  which  is  on  the  horizontal  line, 
or  just  the  height  of  your  eye.  All  the  level  lines  next  the 
street  vanish  in  the  point  of  sight  S,  because  they  are  at  right 
angles  with  your  picture  and  parallel  with  the  principal 
visual  ray. 


AND  SKETCHINa  FROM  NATURE. 


9 


Figure  10. 


An  interior  in  parallel  perspective.  The  farther  end  of 
the  room  and  pictures  on  it,  with  the  end  of  the  bureau 
and  sofa  next  you  are  all  drawn  in  their  real  shape,  because 
they  are  parallel  with  your  picture.  The  side  walls,  ceil- 
ing and  floor  all  converge  towards  the  point  of  sight  S.,  and 
if  the  room  were  a mile  long  the  opening  of  the  extreme 
end  would  be  seen  at  that  point  and  would  not  appear  so 
large  as  a pea  when  held  near  the  eye. 

Observe  in  most  of  the  above  figures  you  have  but  three 
kinds  of  lines,  and  there  are  but  three  directions  in  which 
any  of  them  can  be  drawn. 

I.  Perpendicular  lines  which  never  vary,  but  are 
always  drawn  perpendicular. 

II.  Level  lines  which  are  parallel  with  the  perspective 
plane,  and  are  always  drawn  level. 

III.  Level  lines  which  going  directly  from  you  are  at 
right  angles  with  your  picture,  and  must  always  be  drawn 
to  the  point  of  sight. 

OsLiauE  Perspective. 

When  you  look  towards  one  corner  of  a table,  house 
box,  (fee.,  neither  of  the  sides  will  be  parallel  with  your 


10 


FIRST  LESSONS  IN  PERSPECTIVE, 


picture,  and  your  drawing  will  be  in  oblique  perspective. 
In  this  case,  none  of  the  level  lines  can  be  drawn  level  un- 
less they  happen  just  the  height  of  your  eye. 

The  two  Vanishing  Points  of  rectangular  Figures  will 
be  at  an  angle  of  90  degrees  from  the  eye. 

Figure  11, 


represents  a block  of  buildings  one  side  of  which  yon  may 
suppose  on  a street  going  north  and  the  other  on  a street 
going  east  or  exactly  at  right  angles  with  the  former.  The 
spectator  is  supposed  to  stand  on  the  opposite  corner  of  the 
street  at  E.  V and  V R,  the  two  vanishing  points  make  a 
right  angle  with  the  eye  of  the  spectator.  The  level  line 
from  V to  V R,  is  the  horizontal  line.  It  the  buildings  were 
continued  for  miles  on  either  side,  those  on  the  right  could 
never  be  seen  beyond  a line  going  exactly  east  from  the 
eye,  nor  could  those  on  the  left  ever  appear  beyond  a line 
going  just  north  from  it;  but  as  the  buildings  and  width 
of  the  street  diminish  as  they  recede  on  each  side,  they 
would  at  length  vanish  in  two  points  at  a right  angle  from 
the  eye.  If  you  were  to  took  at  the  buildings  through  the 
perspective  plane,  the  points  where  the  two  sides  vanish 
would  appear  in  the  same  direction  on  the  picture,  or  would 
be  seen  at  the  same  angle.  If  the  perspective  plane  were 
held  near  the  eye  the  vanishing  points  on  it  would  be  near 
together,  if  held  at  a greater  distance  they  would  be  farther 
apart,  but  in  either  case,  they  would  make  a right  angle 
with  the  eye. 

Place  a box  at  a little  distance  from  one  corner  of  a 
square  table,  so  that  its  sides  shall  be  parallel  with  the 
sides  of  the  table  ; attach  the  middle  of  a thread  to  the  up- 


jkND  SKETCHING  FROM  NATURE. 


11 


per,  nearest  corner  of  the  box,  let  the  ends  of  it  be  suspen- 
ded over  the  edges  of  the  table  by  small  weights  which 
may  be  kept  in  their  places  by  pins, 

Figure  12. 


as  shown  in  figure  12,  where  the  spectator  is  supposed 
to  look  towards  one  corner  of  the  table  with  his  eye  a little 
above  the  top  of  the  box.  In  this  case,  the  level  lines  of 
the  table  and  of  the  box  rise  as  they  go  from  the  observer, 
and  the  sides  of  each  would  vanish  in  their  respective  points 
on  the  horizontal  line. 


Figure  13, 


represents  the  box  in  the  same  position  on  the  table,  the 
bottom  of  which,  and  the  upper  edge  of  the  table  are  pre- 
cisely level,  because  they  are  now  supposed  to  be  on  the 
horizontal  line.  Bring  the  eye  close  to  the  corner  of  the 
table  E,  and  you  will  see  the  two  lower  lines  of  the  box 
appear  level,  but  the  upper  edges  of  the  box  appear  to  go 
down  towards  the  sides  of  the  table  just  as  the  thread  does, 


12 


FIRST  LESSONS  IN  PERSPECTIVE, 


and  as  the  comer  of  the  table  makes  an  angle  of  90  de- 
grees it  shows  the  two  vanishing  points  of  rectangular  ob- 
jects, to  be  at  that  angle  from  the  eye. 

Place  the  perspective  plane  on  the  table  between  the  eye 
and  the  box,  and  you  will  notice  the  upper  edges  of  the 
box  appear  to  descend  on  the  picture  in  the  same  direction 
as  the  thread,  and  that  the  two  vanishing  points,  though  near 
together  in  proportion  as  the  plane  is  held  near  the  eye,  are 
still  seen  at  an  agle  of  90  degrees  on  the  picture. 

If  the  box  were  removed  farther  from  you  so  that  the 
sides  should  vanish  several  yards  apart,  they  would  still 
be  seen  at  the  same  distance  from  each  other  on  the  perspec- 
tive plane,  for  they  would  vanish  at  the  same  angle  of  90 
degrees* 

Now  if  you  turn  the  box  a little,  so  as  to.  see  one  side 
more  obliquely,  you  will  find  that  side  does  not  appear  to 
follow  the  direction  of  the  thread  as  before,  but  will  go 
down  more  rapidly,  or  will  vanish  sooner : and  as  the  op- 
posite side  is  less  oblique,  or  is  nearer  parallel  with  your 
picture,  it  will  vanish  farther  from  the  eye.  But  in  all 
cases,  the  two  vanishing  points  vrill  make  the  same  angle ; 
for  if  one  side  vanish  at  an  angle  of  45  degrees  on  the  left, 
the  other  vanishing  point  will  be  45  degrees  on  the  right, 
which  make  90.  Or  if  one  side  vanish  at  60  degrees  on  the 
left,  the  other  will  be  at  30  on  the  right  which  make  90. 

Figure  14. 


A Box  in  Oblique  Perspective, 

The  level  lines  on  the  left  appear  to  rise  more  than 
those  on  the  right,  because  they  are  more  oblique  with  the 
perspective  plane,  or  go  more  directly  from  you.  The  key 
hole  is  a little  beyond  the  centre,  because  the  nearest  half 
of  the  box  appears  larger  than  the  other.  The  vanishing 
lines  on  the  right  would  if  continued  meet  in  a point  on 
the  horizontal  line  H* 


AND  SKETCHING  FROM  NATUHE. 


13 


Figure  15. 


To  draw  a Door. 

In  figure  15  the  frame  is  drawn  in  its  real  shape  because 
it  is  parallel  with  the  perspective  plane,  but  as  the  door  is 
partly  open,  it  becomes  oblique  with  the  picture  and  the 
edges  and  pannels  vanish  on  the  horizontal  line  H.  Now 
if  you  stand  so  far  to  the  left  as  to  make  the  door  parallel 
with  your  picture,  that  must  be  drawn  in  its  true  shape  and 
the  frame  must  be  made  to  vanish. 

Point  of  Distance, 

The  space  between  the  eye  of  the  draughtsman  and  the 
perspective  plane  is  called  the  distance  of  the  picture.  This 
distance  when  set  off  from  the  point  of  sight  and  marked 
either  perpendicular  to  it  or  on  the  horizontal  line,  is  called 

THE  POINT  OF  DISTANCE. 

To  obtain  a distinct  view  the  distance  of  the  picture  from 
the  eye  should  not  be  less  than  its  length  ; that  is  if  you 
make  your  drawing  one  foot  long  your  perspective  plane 
must  be  held  at  least  one  foot  from  the  eye,  or  if  your  pic- 
ture be  two  feet  in  length  your  perspective  plane  must  be 
supposed  to  have  been  at  least  that  distance  from  you. 


14 


FIRST  LESSONS  IN  PERSPECTIVE. 


When  you  look  directly  towards  the  corner  of  a house, 
square  table,  box,  &c.,  so  that  the  two  sides  make  the  same 
angle  with  the  perspective  plane,  or  when  you  view  one 
side  just  as  obliquely  as  the  other,  they  will  both  vanish  in 
the  points  of  distance,  that  is  the  vanishing  point,  for  each 
side  will  be  on  the  horizontal  line  at  precisely  the  same 
distance  from  the  point  of  sight  that  your  eye  is,  in  front  of 
that  point. 

But  if  you  view  one  side  more  obliquely  than  the 
other,  the  vanishing  points  will  not  be  the  distance 
points  as  before,  but  the  side  seen  most  obliquely  will 
vanish  nearer  the  point  of  sight  than  the  distance  of  your 
eye  from  the  picture,  and  the  opposite  side  will  vanish  be- 
yond the  point  of  distance. 

But  in  drawing  rectangular  figures,  a point  made  on  the 
centre  of  the  horizontal  line  will  in  all  cases  be  at  just  the 
same  distance  from  the  eye  of  the  draughtsman  as  it  is  from 
each  of  the  two  vanishing  points. 

Figure  16. 


To  Draw  a House  in  Oblique  Perspective. 

1.  From  the  point  E,  draw  the  nearest  perpendicular  line 
of  the  building ; this  you  may  make  longer  or  shorter  at 
pleasure,  but  when  the  length  is  once  fixed,  let  it  be  a scale 
by  which  you  determine  the  measure  of  all  the  other  lines. 


AND  SKETCHING  FROM  NATURE. 


15 


2.  Hold  a card  horizontally  before  your  eye  and  observe 
the  point  wliere  it  appears  to  intersect  the  nearest  corner 
of  the  house,  and  this  will  be  the  height  of  your  horizontal 
line,  or  suppose  the  house  to  stand  on  level  ground  and  the 
height  to  the  eaves  to  be  15  feet,  your  eye  will  be  about  5 
feet  from  the  ground,  or  one  third  the  height  of  the 
building. 

3.  Continue  the  level  line  H through  the  perpendicular 
A,  already  drawn,  and  at  one  third  its  height  from  the 
ground,  this  will  be  your  horizontal  line. 

4.  Hold  up  your  perspective  plane  and  ascertain  how 
much  the  base  line  of  the  right  hand  side  of  the  house  ap- 
pears to  rise  and  draw  it  at  the  supposed  angle  till  it  meets 
the  horizontal  line  in  V.  This  will  be  the  vanishing  point 
for  all  the  level  parallel  lines  on  that  side  of  the  building. 

5.  To  obtain  the  vanishing  point  on  the  left  hand  side, 
hold  up  the  perspective  plane  as  before,  and  consider  how 
much  the  base  line  rises,  or  the  angle  it  makes  with  the 
horizontal  line  and  draw  it  to  the  point  2 V.  Or  if  you  as- 
sume the  perspective  plane  to  be  at  a particular  distance 
from  the  eye,  the  exact  vanishing  point  may  be  obtained 
by  raising  a perpendicular  from  the  point  of  sight  kS.  to  the 
distance  your  eye  is  supposed  to  be  from  the  perspective 
plane. 

Suppose  you  hold  the  plane  at  such  a distance  from  the 
eye  that  the  nearest  perpendicular  line  of  the  house,  box, 
or  other  object  appears  on  it  two  inches  long,  suppose  the 
perspective  plane  to  be  three  times  that  distance,  or  six 
inches  from  the  eye,  then  your  real  distance  point  or  eye 
would  be  six  inches  directly  before  the  point  of  sight  S.;  but 
as  you  cannot  rule  a line  directly  out  of  the  paper  towards 
the  eye,  you  may  accomplish  the  same  purpose  by  setting 
off  the  point  of  distance  D perpendicular  to  the  point  of 
sight  S,  and  six  inches  from  it. 

Remember  the  line  from  S to  D represents  the  distance 
of  the  eye  from  the  nearest  point  on  the  picture. 

6.  Draw  a line  from  the  vanishing  point  V,  to  the  dis- 
tance point  D. 

7.  Draw  a line  from  the  point  D,  making  a right  angle 
with  the  line  D,  V,  and  continue  it  till  it  meets  the  hori- 
zontal line  in  2 V ; this  will  give  the  vanishing  point  for 
all  the  level  lines  on  that  side  of  the  building. 

Suppose  the  two  lines  forming  a right  angle  in  D,  and 
extending  to  the  two  vanishing  points,  to  be  a wire  bent  at 


16 


FIRST  LESSONS  IN  PERSPECTIVE, 


the  same  angle  in  D,  and  turning  on  pivots  at  the  points 
V and  2 V.  Hold  the  figure  upright,  turn  the  wire  down 
so  that  the  angle  D shall  be  exactly  opposite  fhe  point  of 
sight  S,  and  it  will  give  the  real  situation  of  the  eye,  or 
your  distance  from  the  picture. 

So  if  two  lines  forming  a right  angle  at  the  eye  of  the 
draughtsman  were  continued  till  they  meet  the  horizontal 
line  on  the  perspective  plane  they  would  give  ihe  same 
vanishing  points  as  are  obtained  by  setting  off  an  equal  dis- 
tance either  above  or  below  the  point  of  sight,  and  drawing 
lines  at  right  angles  from  them  till  they  meet  the  horizon- 
tal line. 

8.  The  point  of  the  roof  will  not  be  exactly  over  the  cen- 
tre of  the  left  hand  side  of  the  building  because  the  half 
next  you  appears  the  largest,  but  draw  diagonals  from  the 
opposite  corners,  and  their  point  of  intersection  F will  be 
the  true  perspective  centre.  From  this  point,  raise  a perpen- 
dicular to  C,  the  supposed  height  of  the  roof. 

9.  The  two  oblique  lines  forming  the  sides  of  the  roof 
are  in  the  same  direction  as  the  level  lines  on  the  corres- 
ponding sides  of  the  house,  except  they  are  slanting,  or  in- 
clined to  the  horizon,  and  will  vanish  in  a point  exactly 
perpendicular  to  the  point  2 V. 

10.  The  doors  and  windows  if  represented  in  the  plate 
would  on  each  side  of  the  house  go  to  their  respective  van- 
ishing points,  and  as  they  recede,  would  decrease  in  width 
as  they  decrease  in  height. 

Figure  17, 


i / I 


A Perspective  View  of  a Level  Walk. 

The  posts  stand  at  equal  distances  each  way  so  that  the 
first  four  posts  would  be  the  corners  of  an  exact  square. 


AND  SKETCHING  FROM  NATURE. 


17 


Suppose  the  wtilk  to  be  just  four  yards  wide,  and  the  spa- 
ces between  the  posts  as  they  recede  to  be  of  equal  width. 

1.  Draw  the  two  front  posts  at  such  a distance  apart  as 
you  wish  to  represent  them,  say  two  inches.  Suppose  the 
posts  to  be  one  yard  in  height,  or  equal  to  one  fourth  the 
width  of  the  walk,  then  you  must  draw  them  half  an  inch 
in  height,  or  one  fourth  of  two  inches,  the  width  between 
your  posts  already  drawn. 

2.  Consider  how  much  your  eye  is  above  the  first  post, 
that  is,  whether  it  is  once,  twice  or  tliree  times  as  high  and 
at  the  supposed  height,  draw  your  horizontal  line  S D.  In 
the  plate,  it  is  drawn  just  twice  the  height  of  the  post  which 
supposes  your  eye  to  be  six  feet  from  the  ground. 

Mark  on  the  horizontal  line  exactly  opposite  your  eye 
the  point  of  sight  S. 

3.  From  the  two  front  posts  draw  lines  to  the  point  of 
sight  which  will  give  the  perspective  width  of  the  walk  ; 
draw  lines  also,  from  the  top  of  the  front  posts  to  the  point 
S,  and  you  will  have  the  perspective  height  of  all  the  others. 

4.  Mark  on  the  horizontal  line  the  point  of  distance  D, 
which  represents  the  distance  from  the  point  of  sight  S, 
that  the  eye  of  the  draughtsman  is  supposed  to  be  in  front 
of  it. 

5.  Draw  a line  from  the  bottom  of  the  left  hand  post  to 
the  point  of  distance,  and  where  it  intersects  the  line  already 
drawn  from  the  right  hand  post  to  the  point  of  sight  will 
be  the  situation  of  the  second  right  hand  post. 

6.  From  this  post  draw  a level  line  till  it  meets  the  op- 
posite vanishing  line  of  the  walk,  and  it  gives  the  situation 
of  the  second  post  on  the  left  hand. 

7.  From  the  second  post  on  the  left  hand,  draw  another 
line  to  the  point  of  distance  and  its  intersection  with  the 
vanishing  line  will  show  the  situation  of  the  third  post  on 
the  right  hand.  Continue  the  same  process  till  the  walk 
is  completed.  By  setting  off  another  point  of  distance  on 
the  left  hand  the  situation  of  the  posts  on  that  side  might 
be  obtained  in  the  same  way  as  those  on  the  right. 


18 


FIRST  LESSONS  IN  PEKSPECTIVE, 


Figure  18. 


To  obtain  the  situation  of  Windows, 

From  the  point  N,  draw  a level  line  N L,  which  you 
may  consider  the  real  length  of  the  line  N C.  Suppose  this 
side  of  the  house  to  be  25  feet  in  length  and  to  contain  3 
windows,  each  three  feet  wide,  in  all  9 feet.  Let  each  of 
the  four  spaces  represent  4 feet,  or  16  feet  in  all,  which 
added  to  9 feet,  the  width  of  the  windows  makes  25  feet, 
the  true  length  of  the  house. 

On  the  line  N L,  set  off  the  windows  in  their  true  pro- 
portions, making  the  spaces  on  each  side  and  between  them 
once  and  a third  the  width  of  the  windows. 

Draw  a line  fiorn  the  point  L,  through  the  corner  C till  , 
it  meets  the  horizontal  line  in  H. 

Draw  lines  from  each  of  the  other  points  set  off  on  N L 
to  the  point  H,  and  exactly  under  the  intersection  of  these 
lines  in  N C,  will  be  the  perspective  situation  and  width  of 
the  windows.  If  the  line  N L had  been  longer  or  shorter, 
the  situation  of  the  windows  would  be  the  same  in  case  the 
line  L H had  been  drawn  through  the  corner,  C. 

A Circle  when  viewed  in  front  appears  in  its  true 
shape,  but  when  seen  obliquely  it  becomes  oval.  If  a cir- 
cle were  drawn  on  a door  by  opening  it  you  would  see  the 
perpendicular  diameter  remain  nearly  the  same,  while  in 
the  other  direction  it  would  become  narrow  till  at  length 
it  would  vanish. 

This  principle  must  be  applied  in  drawing  cart  wheels, 
arches,  the  head  of  a barrel,  top  of  a pail,  earthen  ves- 
sels, (kc. 


AND  SKETCHING  1 ROM  NATURE. 


19 


Figure  19. 

^ - 


To  square  a Circle  to  be  put  in  Perspective. 

1.  Describe  a circle  with  a pair  of  compasses. 

2.  Enclose  this  circle  in  a perfect  square. 

3.  Draw  the  diagonals  A D and  B C. 

4.  Through  the  points  where  the  diagonals  cut  the  cir- 
cle draw  two  perpendicular  and  two  horizontal  lines. 

To  put  the  Circle  when  thus  prepared  in  Perspective. 

1.  Parallel  with  A B draw  the  horizontal  line  S D,  and 
observe  the  lower  it  is  drawn  the  more  oblique  you  are 
supposed  to  view  the  figure,  and  the  narrower  will  be  the 
circle. 

2.  Mark  on  the  horizontal  line  the  point  of  sight  S,  which 
may  be  made  at  pleasure  perpendicular  to  the  centre  of  the 
square  already  drawn,  or  on  either  side  of  it.  In  this  case 
the  spectator  is  supposed  to  be  on  the  right  of  the  square,  to 
be  put  in  perspective. 

3.  From  the  termination  of  the  perpendicular  lines  in 
A B draw  lines  to  the  point  of  sight  S. 


20 


FIRST  LESSONS  I’N  PERSPECTIVE, 


4.  On  the  horizontal  line  mark  D,  the  point  of  distance. 
This  may  be  nearer  or  farther  from  the  point  of  sight  S, 
because  you  can  imagine  the  perspective  plane  to  be  nearer 
or  farther  from  your  eye. 

5.  From  the  point  A,  draw  a line  to  the  point  of  distance 
and  when  it  intersects  the  line  B S,  will  be  the  perspective 
width  of  the  square. 

6.  From  the  point  of  intersection  F,  draw  the  line  E F 
parallel  with  A B,  which  will  complete  the  perspective 
square. 

7.  Draw  the  diagonal  E B.  If  this  were  continued  to  the 
horizontal  line,  it  would  give  the  other  distance  point  on 
the  right  at  the  same  distance  from  S that  D is  on  the  left. 

8.  Draw  the  horizontal  lines  through  the  points  where 
the  diagonals  cross  the  converging  rays. 

9.  You  have  now  obtained  points  as  seen  in  the  figure 
through  which  your  perspective  circle  may  be  traced 
lightly  with  a pencil,  and  afterward  be  redrawn  with  a pen. 

To  drav)  Flowers  in  Perspective. 

You  will  observe  that  the  leaves  of  plants  can  only  be 
drawn  in  their  true  shape  when  one  side  is  exactly  parallel 
with  the  perspective  plane,  and  that  they  become  longer  or 
shorter,  broader  or  narrower  in  proportion  as  they  are  view  - 
ed more  or  less  obliquely.  In  sketching  plants  or  flowers 
from  nature,  take  at  first  only  two  or  three  leaves,  put  them 
in  a vial  of  water  to  confine  them  in  one  position  ; set  your 
perspective  plane  close  before  them ; keep  the  eye  in  one 
position  and  you  will  see  them  on  the  glass  in  their  true 
perspective  form  which  you  can  copy  on  your  paper. 

Figure  20. 


AND  SKETCHING  FROM  NATURE. 


21 


length,  but  quite  narrow,  the  second  pointing  towards  the 
picture  appears  in  its  full  width  but  much  shorter  than  its 
true  shape. 

Drawing  from  Objects, 

Do  not  be  satisfied  with  inspecting  the  figures  in  this 
book,  but  make  careful  drawings  of  them. 

Make  them  about  twice  the  present  size.  Rule  them 
lightly  at  first,  using  a hard  pencil,  and  the  permanent  lines 
may  afterward  be  neatly  drawn  with  a steel  pen. 

Let  this  exercise  be  followed  by  drawing  every  article  of 
furniture  about  the  house. 

Draw  also,  the  buildings  in  the  neighborhood.  At  the 
same  time  draw  from  the  eye  all  kinds  of  vessels,  cooking 
utensils,  and  other  objects  about  the  house,  observing  when 
the  surface  of  any  object  is  viewed  obliquely,  it  is  drawn 
narrow  in  proportion. 

In  sketching  from  nature,  do  not  begin  with  difficult  or 
extended  views.  A single  plant  as  the  dock,  thistle,  fern,  or 
mullen,  a rustic  bridge,  the  decayed  trunk  of  a tree,  a 
rock  partly  concealed  by  vines,  or  briars,  or  a single  cot- 
tage with  one  or  two  trees  and  a glimpse  of  the  distance 
will  be  found  suitable  objects  for  first  studies. 

When  you  wish  to  include  several  objects  in  the  same 
picture,  stand  at  such  a distance  as  to  see  them  distinctly 
without  turning  the  head,  hold  up  your  sketch  book  about 
its  length  before  your  eye  and  mark  on  its  edge  the  situa- 
tion of  the  principal  objects : after  drawing  these  in  their 
true  position  the  other  parts  are  easily  made  to  correspond. 

It  is  best  in  sketching,  to  use  a rather  soft  pencil,  hav- 
ing a blunt  point  with  which  you  can  give  dark,  spirited 
touches  where  deep  shadows  are  required. 

Some  artists  finish  their  drawings  on  the  spot,  but  as 
this  requires  much  time  and  patience,  most  are  satisfied 
with  making  a careful  outline  touching  in  the  strongest 
shadows,  making  memorandums  of  other  parts,  and  depend- 
ing on  their  recollection  for  the  finish.  The  sketch  may 
then  be  re-drawn  and  shaded  at  home. 

In  sketching  trees  do  not  attempt  to  imitate  the  separate 
leaves  ; but  if  you  are  at  some  distance  and  partly  close  your 
eyes,  you  will  see  in  thick  foliage  that  the  prominent 
masses  which  project  towards  you  catch  the  light,  and  that 
under  them  are  the  deepest  shadows. 


22 


FIRST  LESSONS  IN  PERSPECTIVE, 


Avoid  spotHness,  or  lights  and  darks  scattered  indis- 
criminately through  your  picture,  but  bring  your  light  and 
dark  objects  each  into  distinct  groups  connecting  them  by 
others  in  middle  tint.  To  make  a picture  pleasing^  this 
must  be  done  when  necessary,  at  the  expense  of  making 
some  of  the  objects  darker,  and  others  lighter  than  they  are 
in  nature.  But  many  objects  which  are  subject  to  change, 
such  as  clouds,  figures,  cattle,  sails  of  vessels,  autumnal 
foliage,  (fcc.,  may  be  made  light  or  dark  at  pleasure. 

The  distance  in  a picture  should  be  soft  and  indistinct.  In 
the  middle  ground,  the  forms  should  be  more  definite ; but 
still  keep  them  in  masses  and  avoid  detail.  In  the  foreground 
the  parts  should  be  distinctly  drawn,  the  lights  and  shadows 
made  strong,  and  sometimes  the  branch  of  a tree  or  plants, 
which  are  quite  near,  may  be  finished  so  as  to  show  the 
separate  leaves. 

Sketches  are  either  taken  from  the  imagination  or  from 
nature.  When  the  imaginary  sketch  proceeds  from  the 
hands  of  a master,  it  is  very  valuable.  It  is  his  first  con- 
ception^  which  is  commonly  the  strongest,  and  the  most 
brilliant.  With  regard  to  sketching  from  nature,  your  first 
consideration  is,  to  get  it  in  the  best  point  of  view ; a few 
paces  to  the  right  or  left,  make  a great  difference.  The 
ground  which  folds  awkwardly  here,  appears  to  fold  more 
easily  there,  and  that  long  blank  curtain  of  the  castle,  which 
is  so  unpleasing  a circumstance,  as  you  stand  on  one  side, 
is  agreeably  broken  by  a buttress  on  the  other. 

Having  thus  fixed  your  point  of  view,  your  next  consid- 
eration is,  how  to  reduce  it  properly  within  the  compass  of 
your  paper.  If  the  landscape  before  you  is  extensive,  take 
care  you  do  not  include  too  much  : it  may,  perhaps,  be  di- 
vided more  commodiously  into  two  sketches.  When  you 
have  fixed  the  portion  of  it  you  mean  to  take,  fix  next  on 
two  or  three  principal  points,  which  you  may  just  markon 
your  paper.  This  will  enable  you  the  more  easily  to  as- 
certain the  relative  situation  of  the  several  objects.  When 
a sketch  is  intended  to  convey,  in  some  degree,  our  ideas 
to  others,  it  is  necessary  it  should  be  somewhat  more  adorn- 
ed ; to  us,  the  scene  familiar  to  our  recollection,  may  be 
suggested  by  a few  rough  strokes. 

In  the  composition  of  landscape,  alterations  may  be  in- 
troduced. I hold  myself  at  perfect  liberty  to  dispose  the 
foreground  as  I please,  restrained  only  by  the  analogy  of 


AND  SKETCHlNCi  FROM  NATURE. 


2;^ 


the  country.  1 take  up  a tree  here,  and  plant  it  there.  I 
remove  a piece  of  paling,  a cottage,  or  a wall,  which  I dis- 
like. In  short;  I make  a few  of  those  simple  variations,  of 
which  all  ground  is  easily  susceptible,  and  which,  indeed, 
time  itself  is  continually  making.  No  beauty  of  light,  col- 
oring, or  execution,  can  atone  for  the  want  of  composition. 
It  is  the  foundation  of  all  picturesque  beauty.  No  finery 
of  dress  can  set  ofi*  a person,  whose  figure  is  awkward  and 
uncouth. 

In  sketching,  black  lead  is  the  first  instrument  commonly 
used.  It  is  enough  if  you  express  general  shapes,  and  the 
relations  which  the  several  intersections  bear  to  each  other. 
A few  lines  drawn  on  the  spot  will  do  this.  The  leading 
ideas  must  be  fixed  on  the  spot ; if  left  to  the  memory,  they 
soon  evaporate. 

The  lines  of  black  lead,  and  indeed  of  any  one  instru- 
ment, are  subject  to  the  great  inconvenience  of  confounding 
distances.  If  there  are  two  or  three  distances  in  the  land- 
scape, as  each  of  them  is  expressed  by  the  same  kind  of 
line,  the  eye  forgets  the  distinction,  even  in  half  a day’s 
travelling ; and  all  is  confusion,  'lo  remedy  this,  a few 
written  references  made  on  the  spot  are  necessary,  if  the 
landscape  be  at  all  complicated.  The  traveller  should  be 
accurate  in  this  point,  as  the  spirit  of  his  own  view  depends 
much  on  the  proper  observance  of  distances.  At  his  first 
leisure,  however,  he  will  review  his  sketch  ; add  a few 
strokes  with  a pen  to  mark  the  near  grounds  ; and  by  a 
slight  wash  of  Indian  ink,  throw  in  a few  general  lights 
and  shades,  to  keep  all  fixed  and  in  its  place. 

I should  advise  the  traveller  by  no  means  to  work  his 
adorned  sketch  upon  his  general  one.  His  first  sketch  is 
the  standard,  to  which,  in  the  absence  of  nature,  he  must, 
at  least,  recur  for  his  general  ideas.  By  going  over  it  again, 
the  original  ideas  may  be  lost,  and  the  whole  thrown  into 
confusion.  Great  masters  therefore,  always  set  a high 
value  on  their  sketches  from  nature.  On  the  same  princi- 
ple, the  picturesque  traveller  preserves  his  original  sketch 
(though  in  itself  of  little  value)  to  keep  him  within 
bounds.” — Gilpm, 

“ Sketches  are  extremely  valuable  to  artists  and  the  ad- 
mirers of  art.  It  is  certain  that  in  these  hasty  productions, 
there  is  often  a spirit  or  grace,  which  is  too  apt  to  vanish 
in  the  finished  performance.  The  artist’s  sketch  book,  is 


24 


FIRST  LESSONS  IN  PERSPECTIVE. 


not  only  valuable  for  wiiat  it  contains  as  materials  for  fu- 
ture practice,  but  it  affords  a pleasure  in  the  retrospect,  a 
history  of  times  and  places  which  come  with  double  inter- 
est to  his  recollections. 

Sketches  are  made  in  different  ways,  and  with  a differ- 
ence of  character  in  point  of  care  and  finish  : in  some,  every 
form  is  sedulously  made  out,  and  the  detail  given  with  the 
greatest  accuracy  : others,  again,  are  executed  with  a rapid 
pencil,  omitting  the  detail  to  catch  the  general  resemblance 
and  efect : but  this  latter  style  should  never  be  practised 
till  the  correct  and  accurate  manner  is  acquired.  Care 
should  be  taken  against  too  much  minuteness  on  the  one 
hand,  and  too  much  looseness  on  the  other,  and  of  every 
subordinate  quality  of  art  the  same,  as  many  are  apt  to  stop 
at  the  means,  without  ever  arriving  at  the  power  of  produ- 
cing a finished  performance. 

Too  much  technical  skill,  will  often  lose  sight  of  the 
general  character  and  effect,  while  the  power  of  fixing  the 
expression  and  general  air,  will  often  lead  to  the  neglect  of 
finishing  and  detail.  It  will,  therefore,  be  well  to  watch 
these  mutual  encroachments  which  often  imperceptibly  steal 
on  the  practice  of  the  artist  himself. 

The  sketches  of  Gainsborough  had  great  freedom,  but 
this  artist  had  studied  minutely  the  character^of  every  thing 
he  drew. 

Wilson  towards  the  latter  part  of  his  life,  contented  him- 
self with  marking  slightly  the  forms  of  his  objects : his 
memorandums  were  mostly  for  effect.” — Dagley. 


UNIVERSrTY  OF  ILLINOIS-URBANA 


3 0 


12  070053027 


